The
independent state of Italy emerged from a long nationalist struggle
for unification that started with the revolution of 1848. The southern
kingdoms of Sardinia and Sicily joined in 1866 and by 1914 only the
Vatican and San Marino retained independence within Italy. However,
a large Italian population remained within Austria-Hungary
in the Trentino and Trieste regions.
By 1911 Italy had a population of 34.7 million. Although primarily
an agricultural economy, there was considerable industry in the northern
areas of the country. To feed its growing population, Italy needed
to import some foods, notably grain from Russia
and Germany.
Italy was a constitutional monarchy. Victor
Emmanuel III had been king since 1900. People were appointed to
the upper house of the National Assembly but the lower house was elected
by universal adult male suffrage. The prime minister was Giovanni
Giolitti but after the 1913 elections when socialists and radicals
did well, he had a greatly reduced majority in the National Assembly.
Italy had been members of the Triple Alliance
with Germany and Austria-Hungary
since 1882. However, this alliance was unpopular with large numbers
of Italians and there was some doubt about Italy's military involvement
in event of a war with members of the Triple
Entente (Britain, France
and Russia).
The Italian Government introduced military conscription in 1907. However,
only about 25 per cent of those eligible for conscription received
training and by 1912 there were only 300,000 men in the Italian
Army.
Over
5.2 million men served in the Italian Army
during the First World War. Italy's total wartime
casualties was 420,000 killed and almost 955,000 wounded.
After
the war Benito Mussolini attacked Vittorio
Orlando for failing to achieve Italy's objectives at the
Versailles Peace Treaty and helped to organize the various right-wing
groups in Italy into the Fascist Party.
After a series of riots in 1922 King Victor
Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini in an attempt to prevent a communist
revolution in Italy.
Mussolini
headed a coalition of fascists and nationalists and parliamentary
government continued until the murder of the socialist leader, Giacomo
Matteotti in 1924.
Left-wing parties were suppressed and in 1929 Italy became a one-party
state.
Mussolini carried out an extensive public-works programme and the
fall in unemployment made him a popular figure in Italy.
Adolf
Hitler had been inspired by Mussolini's success and once he gained
power in Germany he sought a close relationship
with Italy. In October 1936 the two men signed a non-military alliance.
In
1939 Italy invaded Albania and soon afterwards Benito
Mussolini signed a full defensive alliance with Nazi Germany (the
Pact of Steel). However, Mussolini did not declare war on Britain
and France until 10th June 1940.
Mussolini
already had over a million men in the Italian
Army based in Libya. In neighbouring
Egypt the British
Army had only 36,000 men guarding the Suez Canal and the Arabian
oilfields. On 13th September, 1940, Marshall Rodolfo
Graziani and five Italian divisions began a rapid advance into
Egypt but halted in front of the main British
defences at Mersa Matruh.
In
October 1940, Benito
Mussolini declared
war on Greece. Attempts by the Italian
Army to
invade Greece ended in failure. The war was also going badly in North
Africa. Although
outnumbered, General Archibald Wavell
ordered a British counter-offensive on 9th December, 1940. The Italians
suffered heavy casualties and were pushed back more than 800km (500
miles). British troops moved along the coast and on 22nd January,
1941, they captured the port of Tobruk
in Libya from the Italians.
By the
end of 1941 Italy was totally dependent
on Nazi Germany. The Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Galaezzo Ciano, became
increasingly dissatisfied with the way Mussolini was running the country.
After a series of heated arguments with Mussolini, Ciano resigned
in February, 1943.
Galaezzo
Ciano remained a member of the Fascist Grand Council and argued
that Italy should sign a separate peace with the Allies. He also voted
for Benito Mussolini to be replaced
by Pietro Badoglio.
